A Memorial to the Enslaved

[Note: White readers please read my post on guilt before reacting to or replying on this post.]

This post is dedicated to the tragedy of slavery, and in particular slavery as perpetuated by my ancestors.  It lists every person enslaved by one of my direct ancestors and the information we have about them. I will update it as I find new information. I've organized it by the last name of the enslaver, on the theory that that name may have been adopted by the enslaved person as well. Otherwise, I have no last names for any of the people listed here. Hopefully, this may be useful to someone searching for their ancestry among those who frequently went unnamed. 

Many myths about slavery are found in our history classes, and especially among white Americans. It is a myth, for example, that slaves - particularly house slaves - were generally well-treated by their masters; that slaves were better off under the "protection" of their enslavers than on their own; or that Black American slaves were no worse off than Irish potato farmers, or Jewish ghetto dwellers, or 19th century tenement laborers. Certainly, people of African-American descent have no monopoly on oppression, but the U.S. institution of slavery was so brutal, so horrific, so evil, that it belongs in a class of its own. Many slaves and former slaves told their own stories, and these are easily accessible on-line (although painful to read). Some places to begin: the WPA former slave narratives, Frederick Douglass's autobiography, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl by Harriet Ann Jacobs, or Twelve Years a Slave by Solomon Northup (the book, not the movie, although I hear that is good, too. I'm not a movie person). For a more analytical/historical perspective, an excellent resource is the History of American Slavery podcast by Slate Academy.

Slavery was the foundation on which this republic was built, so it is no surprise that its ripple effects continue to be felt today. One blog post cannot do justice to this topic, but some accessible authors include Ta-Nehisi Coates (personally I think his Pulitzer-winning work on reparations isn't even his best writing even on this topic. For a short intro, I highly recommend his appearance on Bill Moyers's show.); Isabel Wilkerson's book The Warmth of Other Suns, which focuses on the Great Migration but roots it clearly in the post-slavery period; for more technical work, try the publications of sociologist Rodney D. Coates (who is not, to my knowledge, a relative of Ta-Nehisi Coates) or political scientist William A. Darity. 

Please note that it is extremely disturbing to read about families torn apart and people referred to as property. Also, primary documents use words that we would not today, but this post maintains the original language, to bear witness.

Eternal rest grant unto them, O Lord,
and let perpetual light shine upon them.
May they rest in peace.
Amen

Possible last name of Baird:

Name: Jane, Date of birth: Before 1764 (based on the fact that she had multiple children by 1784), location: North Carolina in 1784. Enslaver: John Baird and then Frances Scott Bradner Baird, and then Frances Baird Gilliland (their daughter), Details: In John Baird's will, dated February 20, 1784, "I give and bequeath unto Frances Baird my dearly and well-beloved wife, a negro wench named Jane and her youngest child named Tom". Because it says "her youngest child", I wonder if some of the other people who were willed away were other children of hers. Frances Baird made her own will on January 6, 1786, and in it she mentioned Jane. "I bequeath unto my daughter Frances, mar­ried to Alexander Gilleland a negro wench named Jane to her and to her heirs and assigns forever". No mention is made of Jane's son, Tom, suggesting he had died or been sold before this time.

Name: Tom (son of Jane), Date of birth: before 1784, location: North Carolina in 1784. Enslaver:  John Baird and then Frances Scott Bradner Baird, Details: In John Baird's will, dated February 20, 1784, "I give and bequeath unto Frances Baird my dearly and well-beloved wife, a negro wench named Jane and her youngest child named Tom". Because the will says "her youngest child", I wonder if some of the other people who were willed away were siblings of Tom.

Name: Nell, Date of birth: by 1764 (adult by 1784), location: North Carolina in 1784. Enslaver: John Baird, and then Eleanor Baird Witherspoon (his daughter). Details: In John Baird's will, dated February 20, 1784, "I will and bequeath to my well beloved daughter, Eleanor Witherspoon, all that tract or parcel of land on both sides of Little Catawba Creek including part of the meadow below the old mill containing two hundred and thirty-three acres, also a certain negro woman Nell To her and the heirs of her body or their heirs or assigns forever."

Name: Gilly, Date of birth: by 1764 (adult by 1784), location: North Carolina in 1784. Enslaver: John Baird and then Adam Baird (his son). Details: In John Baird's will, dated February 20, 1784, "I give and bequeath to my well beloved son, Adam Baird, the tract of land on the two small branches of Little Catawaba containing one hundred acres and one negro named Gilly, to him and his heirs and assigns forever."

Name: Harry, Date of birth: before 1784, location: North Carolina in 1784. Enslaver: John Baird and then Sarah Baird Martin (his daughter). Details: In John Baird's will, dated February 20, 1784, "I give and bequeath to my well beloved daughter, Sarah Martin, one negro boy named Harry, to her and the heirs of her body and their assigns forever." It is possible that Harry was the son of Jane, since she is described has having more than one child. It is also possible that Harry is the son of the man named Harry (see below), just based on the shared name.

Name: Harry, Date of birth: by 1764 (an adult by 1784), location: North Carolina in 1784. Enslaver: John Baird and then Frances Baird Gilliland (his daughter). Details: In John Baird's will, dated February 20, 1784, "I give and bequeath to my well beloved daughter Frances Gilliland, one negro man named Harry to her and the heirs of her body or their assigns forever." It is possible that Harry was the father of the boy named Harry (see above), just based on the shared name.

Name: Jack, Date of birth: by 1784, location: North Carolina in 1784. Enslaver: John Baird and then Anne Baird Brown (his daughter). Details: In John Baird's will, dated February 20, 1784, "I will and bequeath to my well beloved daughter Anne Brown, as above mentioned, one negro boy named Jack, to her and the heirs of her body or their assigns forever." Jack may have been the son of Jane, since she is mentioned as having other children. 

Name: Jean, Date of birth: by 1788 (described as a woman in 1808), location: Lincoln County, North Carolina in 1808. Enslaver: James Baird and then, possibly, Nancy Meney Baird (his wife). Details: In James Baird's will of October 9, 1808, he leaves to his wife "one Negro Woman Jean or Ann and to have her Choice of them." It may be possible that Jean was the same woman as Jane, mentioned above (the two names were often used interchangeably in the 18th century), who was enslaved under James' father John Baird and was willed with her youngest child to John's wife (James's mother) Francis Baird. Francis Baird willed Jane to her daughter, Frances Gilliland, though, not to her son.

Name: Ann, Date of birth: by 1788 (described as a woman in 1808), location: Lincoln County, North Carolina in 1808. Enslaver: James Baird and then, possibly, Nancy Meney Baird (his wife). Details: In James Baird's will of October 9, 1808, he leaves to his wife "one Negro Woman Jean or Ann and to have her Choice of them." 

At least two more people, names: unknown, Dates of birth: by 1808, Location: Lincoln County, North Carolina in 1808. Enslaver: James Baird. Details: In James Baird's will of October 9, 1808, he states, "is my will that all my negroes will be sold not above [withheld?] and that the family may go together if it can be done." He named two women (Jean and Ann) in his will, so this sentence suggests he had at least two more people held in slavery, and at least one family.


Possible last name of Ammon:

Name: Katherine, Date of birth: before September 19, 1757, Location: St. Peter's Parish, New Kent County, Virginia. Enslaver: Christopher Ammon. Details: The vestry book for St. Peter's Parish in New Kent County, Virginia, has a listing of baptisms, including "September 19, 1757: Katherine (Negro Girl belonging to Christopher Ammon)." There is no record of her mother or father. St. Peter's is an Episcopal church and many prominent Virginians were members there, including George Washington, who was married there in 1759. Christopher Ammon's own children were baptized there as well, between 1735 and 1755.  

Name: Ben, Date of birth: before February 5, 1757, Location: St. Peter's Parish, New Kent County, Virginia. Enslaver: Christopher Ammon. Details: The vestry book for St. Peter's Parish in New Kent County, Virginia, has a listing of baptisms, including "February 5, 1757: Ben (Negro Boy belonging to Christopher Ammon)." There is no record of his mother or father. St. Peter's is an Episcopal church and many prominent Virginians were members there, including George Washington, who was married there in 1759. Christopher Ammon's own children were baptized there as well, between 1735 and 1755.  

Name: Jude, Date of birth: before February 5, 1757, Location: St. Peter's Parish, New Kent County, Virginia. Enslaver: Christopher Ammon. Details: The vestry book for St. Peter's Parish in New Kent County, Virginia, has a listing of baptisms, including "February 5, 1757: Jude (Negro Girl belonging to Christopher Ammon)." There is no record of her mother or father. St. Peter's is an Episcopal church and many prominent Virginians were members there, including George Washington, who was married there in 1759. Christopher Ammon's own children were baptized there as well, between 1735 and 1755.  

Name: Unknown, Date of birth: around January 21, 1773, Location: St. Peter's Parish, New Kent County, Virginia. Enslaver: Christopher Ammon (although it is possible this is actually a son of of the Christopher Ammon from whom I'm descended) Details: The vestry book for St. Peter's Parish in New Kent County, Virginia, has a listing of baptisms, including "1773. Negro child belonging to Christopher Amons. Bapti Jan'ry 21." There is no record of the child's mother or father. Other children in the vestry book were all named, so I wonder if the fact that this child was not named suggests that he or she did not survive? St. Peter's is an Episcopal church and many prominent Virginians were members there, including George Washington, who was married there in 1759. Christopher Ammon's own children were baptized there as well, between 1735 and 1755.  



Possible last name of Welsheimer:

Name: unknown, Sex: female, date of birth: by 1800, location: Virginia in 1820. Enslaver: Philip Welsheimer, Details: There are documents from 1820 when the Welsheimer family moved from Virginia to Ohio, showing that Philip Welsheimer sold two slaves. Who these enslaved people are is not at all clear, but according to Welsheimer 1969, David Dean, who was the son of Philip's daughter, Anne (and my great-great-grandfather) remembered his mother's story of "seeing the negress who had cared for the children standing on a hillside, waving good-bye as they left Virginia." I assume she was one of the people sold, but it is possible that she was a third slave who was left with other members of the Welsheimer family.

Name: unknown, date of birth: unknown, location: Virginia in 1820. Enslaver: Philip Welsheimer, Details: There are documents from 1820 when the Welsheimer family moved from Virginia to Ohio, showing that Philip Welsheimer sold two slaves, one for about a thousand dollars, and the other "much less" (Welsheimer 1969). One of these slaves was probably the woman mentioned above. We do not know anything about the other person.


Possible last name of Cox:

Name: Robin, date of birth: unknown (adult by 1692?), location: Henrico County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Cox, and then Richard Cox. Details: In John Cox's will of February 19, 1692, he gave "To son Richard Cox, a negro named Robin".  Two other enslaved people are mentioned in the will, an adult woman named Betty and a child named Molley. It is possible that Robin was the husband/father of Betty and Molley.


Name: Molley, date of birth: child in 1692, location: Henrico County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Cox, and then Henry Cox. Details: In John Cox's will of February 19, 1692, he gave "To son Henry Cox, the bed I lie on and negro child Molley".  Two other enslaved people are mentioned in the will, an adult woman named Betty and an adult? man named Robin. It is possible that Molley was the daughter of Betty and Robin.

Name: Betty, date of birth: by 1672 (adult by 1692) location: Henrico County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Cox, and then George Cox. Details: In John Cox's will of February 19, 1692, he gave "To son George Cox, the plantation I live on and all the Neck of Land at Jarretts Spring to mouth of Capt. Gardner's Creek, a bed, a negro woman Betty, and items".  Two other enslaved people are mentioned in the will, a man named Robin and a child named Molley. It is possible that Betty was the wife/mother of Robin and Molley.

Name: Doll, date of birth: around 1692, location: Henrico County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Cox and then his grandson George Cox. Details: Book 6 of the Henrico Co. Records records a deed dated October 2, 1693, as follows; "Know all men by these presents that I, John Cox, Sen. of the County and parish of Henrico, planter, doe out of the love and affection for which I bear unto my son, Bartholomew Cox, and Rebecka his wife, and for yee advancement and promotion of their son George, have given, granted, aliened, assigned, and sett over and by these presents doe freely, clearly , and absolutely give, grant, alien, assign and set over unto my sd. Grandson, George Cox, ye son of Bartholomew Cox and Rebecka his wife, one Negro girl called Doll, being about a year old, to have and to hold the sd. girl and the issue of her body forever. As witness my hand this eleventh July, 1693" (pg. 439).

Name: Jack, date of birth: called "boy" in May 1754, location: Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: Frederick Cox, and then John Cox his son Details: In the will of Frederick Cox, he wrote "I give my Negro Boy Jack [to?] my Son John when he is at full age or after his Mothers Decease."

Name: Philis, date of birth: adult? by May 1754, location: Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: Frederick Cox, and then Elizabeth Cox. Details: In the will of Frederick Cox, he wrote "Philis and Sarah I lend to my loving Wife during her Natural Life she and their increase to be equally divided between my five Daughters."

Name: Sarah, date of birth: adult? by May 1754, location: Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: Frederick Cox, and then Elizabeth Cox Details: In the will of Frederick Cox, he wrote "Philis and Sarah I lend to my loving Wife during her Natural Life she and their increase to be equally divided between my five Daughters."

Possible last name of Hopkins:

Name: Annaky, date of birth: before Feb 21, 1803, location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: Francis Hopkins and then Jane Cox Hopkins (his wife). Details: In his will dated February 21, 1803, Francis Hopkins wrote "I lend to my wife, Jane Hopkins, during her natural life my plantation whereon I now live, except the parts in possession of my sons, John and Price Hopkins. I also lend her all my household and kitchen furniture, plantation utensils, etc.; also, four negroes, to- wit: Annaky, Nancy, Sooky and Peter"

Name: Nancy, date of birth: before Feb 21, 1803, location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: Francis Hopkins and then Jane Cox Hopkins (his wife). Details: In his will dated February 21, 1803, Francis Hopkins wrote "I lend to my wife, Jane Hopkins, during her natural life my plantation whereon I now live, except the parts in possession of my sons, John and Price Hopkins. I also lend her all my household and kitchen furniture, plantation utensils, etc.; also, four negroes, to- wit: Annaky, Nancy, Sooky and Peter"

Name: Sooky, date of birth: before Feb 21, 1803, location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: Francis Hopkins and then Jane Cox Hopkins (his wife). Details: In his will dated February 21, 1803, Francis Hopkins wrote "I lend to my wife, Jane Hopkins, during her natural life my plantation whereon I now live, except the parts in possession of my sons, John and Price Hopkins. I also lend her all my household and kitchen furniture, plantation utensils, etc.; also, four negroes, to- wit: Annaky, Nancy, Sooky and Peter"

Name: Peter, date of birth: before Feb 21, 1803, location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: Francis Hopkins and then Jane Cox Hopkins (his wife). Details: In his will dated February 21, 1803, Francis Hopkins wrote "I lend to my wife, Jane Hopkins, during her natural life my plantation whereon I now live, except the parts in possession of my sons, John and Price Hopkins. I also lend her all my household and kitchen furniture, plantation utensils, etc.; also, four negroes, to- wit: Annaky, Nancy, Sooky and Peter". It is possible that Peter is the same man as the child who was born December 13, 1726, in New Kent County (see below), but that would put him in his late 70s by 1803, which would be an unusually long lifespan for the time. I'm listing the two records of Peter separately, because it's possible that this Peter was the son or grandson of the other Peter (if related at all.) 

Name: Peter, Date of birth: December 13, 1726, Location: New Kent County, Virginia. Enslaver: William Hopkins. Details:  The Parish Register for St. Peter's Parish in New Kent County, Virginia, has a listing of baptisms, including "Peter a negro of Wm. Hopkins born Decembr 13th 1726." There is no record of his mother or father. St. Peter's is an Episcopal church and many prominent Virginians were members there, including George Washington, who was married there in 1759. William Hopkins' own children were baptized there as well, between 1728 and 1737. Peter may have been the same Peter mentioned in the will of William's son, Francis (see above), but I listed the two records separately, since the Peter born in 1726 would have been in his late 70s by the time of Francis's death. Although it is possible he lived that long, that is a very long lifespan for colonial Virginia, so I think it more likely that the Peter mentioned in 1803 was a younger man named for this Peter, perhaps his son or grandson. 

Name: Joe, Date of birth: September 10, 1729, Location: New Kent County, Virginia. Enslaver:  William Hopkins. Details:  The Parish Register for St. Peter's Parish in New Kent County, Virginia, has a listing of baptisms, including "Joe a negro boy belonging to Wm. Hopkins born Septr 10th, 1729." There is no record of his mother or father. St. Peter's is an Episcopal church and many prominent Virginians were members there, including George Washington, who was married there in 1759. William Hopkins' own children were baptized there as well, between 1728 and 1737.

Name: Phil, Date of birth: April 24 1736, Location: New Kent County, Virginia. Enslaver:  William Hopkins. Details:  The Parish Register for St. Peter's Parish in New Kent County, Virginia, has a listing of baptisms, including "Phil Negro boy belonging to William Hopkins born April 24." There is no record of his mother or father. St. Peter's is an Episcopal church and many prominent Virginians were members there, including George Washington, who was married there in 1759. William Hopkins' own children were baptized there as well, between 1728 and 1737.


Possible last name of Chastain:

Name: Robert. Date of birth: before 1714. Location: Manakintown, Virginia. Enslaver: Pierre Chastain. In the Vestry Book of King William Parish, "Robert, negro" is listed as one of the tithable people (along with Pierre) in Pierre Chastain's household. Please note that this may mean Robert was not enslaved but rather a servant. 

Name: Billander. Date of birth: adult in 1760. Location: King William Parish, Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: John (or Jean) Chastain, later his wife Charlotte Judith Chastain. In John's will, made December 22, 1760 but proved January 25, 1762, he left his wife, Charlotte Judith, "a Negro woman Billander and Negro man Mingo". Since Billander and Mingo were kept together, perhaps they were a couple? If so, they were potentially the parents of one or more of the children who were also divided by the will. Their names were Hannah, Myrtillo, Phyllis, Will, and Docus.

Name: Mingo. Date of birth: adult in 1760. Location: King William Parish, Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: John (or Jean) Chastain, later his wife Charlotte Judith Chastain, later his son, John Jr., later John Jr.'s daughter, Fanny.. In John's will, made December 22, 1760 but proved January 25, 1762, he left his wife, Charlotte Judith, "a Negro woman Billander and Negro man Mingo". Since Billander and Mingo were kept together, perhaps they were a couple? If so, they were potentially the parents of one or more of the children who were also divided by the will. Their names were Hannah, Myrtillo, Phyllis, Will, and Docus. It is likely that Mingo is the same man who is later mentioned in the will of John Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807 in Bedford County. In that will, "Negro Mingo" was given to John Jr.'s daughter Fanny. No mention is made of Billander in this later will. She may have already died or been sold away from her family. Of the children, Hannah and Phyllis were mentioned (and separated) in the later will.

Name: Hannah. Date of birth: described as "girl" in 1760. Location: King William Parish, Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: John (or Jean) Chastain, later his son John Chastain Jr, later to John Jr's son, Stephen. In John Sr's will, made December 22, 1760 but proved January 25, 1762, he left his son, "one Negro girl called Hannah". Hannah was potentially the daughter of Billander and Mingo, and the sister of Myrtillo, Phyllis, Will, and/or Docus.  It is likely that Hannah is the same woman who is later mentioned in the will of John Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807 in Bedford County. In that will, "2 Negroes Hannah and Tom" were given to John Jr.'s son Stephen. Mingo was also mentioned in the will, as was Phyllis (both were separated from their family, if indeed they were related to Hannah). No mention is made of Billander in this later will. She may have already died or been sold away from her family.

Name: Prince. Date of birth: adult in 1760. Location: King William Parish, Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: John (or Jean) Chastain, later his daughter Mary Chastain Witt and her husband, Benjamin. In John Sr's will, made December 22, 1760 but proved January 25, 1762, he left his daughter, "one Negro man called Prince".

Name: Bett. Date of birth: adult in 1760. Location: King William Parish, Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: John (or Jean) Chastain, later his daughter Judith, later his son John Jr., later John Jr's son John. In John Sr's will, made December 22, 1760 but proved January 25, 1762, he left his daughter, "one Negro woman called Bett and one Negro girl called Myrtillo". Since Bett and Myrtillo were kept together, perhaps they were mother and daughter?  It is likely that Bett is the same woman who is later mentioned in the will of John Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807 in Bedford County. In that will, "Negro Bett" was given to John Jr.'s son John. No mention is made of Myrtillo in this later will. She may have already died or been sold away from her family.

Name: Myrtillo. Date of birth: described as a "girl" in 1760. Location: King William Parish, Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: John (or Jean) Chastain, later his daughter Judith. In John Sr's will, made December 22, 1760 but proved January 25, 1762, he left his daughter, "one Negro woman called Bett and one Negro girl called Myrtillo". Since Bett and Myrtillo were kept together, perhaps they were mother and daughter?

Name: Phyllis. Date of birth: described as a "girl" in 1760. Location: King William Parish, Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: John (or Jean) Chastain, later his daughter Jane, later his son John Jr., later John Jr's daughter, Mary "Molly" Chastain. In John Sr's will, made December 22, 1760 but proved January 25, 1762, he left his daughter, "one Negro girl called Phyllis and one Negro boy called Will, one Negro girl called Docus". These children potentially were the children of Billander and Mingo, or of Bett. It is likely that this Phyllis is the same woman who is later mentioned in the will of John Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807 in Bedford County. In that will, "Phillis and a boy" were given to John Jr.'s eldest daughter, Molly. The boy may have been Phyllis's son.

Name: Unknown. Date of birth: described as a "boy" in 1804. Location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Chastain, Jr., later his daughter Molly. In the will of John Chastain Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807, a "Phillis and a boy" were willed to John's daughter, Molly. The boy may have been Phyllis's son.

Name: Will. Date of birth: described as a "boy" in 1760. Location: King William Parish, Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: John (or Jean) Chastain, later his daughter Jane. In John Sr's will, made December 22, 1760 but proved January 25, 1762, he left his daughter, "one Negro girl called Phyllis and one Negro boy called Will, one Negro girl called Docus". These children potentially were the children of Billander and Mingo, or of Bett.

Name: Docus. Date of birth: described as a "girl" in 1760. Location: King William Parish, Cumberland County, Virginia. Enslaver: John (or Jean) Chastain, later his daughter Jane. In John Sr's will, made December 22, 1760 but proved January 25, 1762 in Bedford County, he left his daughter, "one Negro girl called Phyllis and one Negro boy called Will, one Negro girl called Docus". These children potentially were the children of Billander and Mingo, or of Bett.

Name: Jude. Date of birth: before 1804. Location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Chastain, Jr., later his daughter Elizabeth. In the will of John Chastain Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807, "2 Negroes Jude and Patt" were willed to John's daughter, Elizabeth.

Name: Patt. Date of birth: before 1804. Location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Chastain, Jr., later his daughter Elizabeth. In the will of John Chastain Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807, "2 Negroes Jude and Patt" were willed to John's daughter, Elizabeth.

Name: Sam. Date of birth: before 1804. Location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Chastain, Jr., later his son William. In the will of John Chastain Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807, "Negro Sam" was willed to John's son, William.

Name: Tom. Date of birth: before 1804. Location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Chastain, Jr., later his son Stephen. In the will of John Chastain Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807, "2 Negroes Hannah and Tom" were willed to John's son Stephen. It is possible Tom was Hannah's husband or son.

Name: Nell. Date of birth: before 1804. Location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Chastain, Jr., later his daughter Edith. In the will of John Chastain Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807, "Negro Nell" was willed to John's daughter, Edith.

Name: Jane. Date of birth: before 1804. Location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Chastain, Jr., later his daughter Jane (yes, same name as the enslaved woman). In the will of John Chastain Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807, "2 Negroes Jane and Selah" were willed to John's daughter, Jane.

Name: Selah. Date of birth: before 1804. Location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Chastain, Jr., later his daughter Jane (yes, same name as the enslaved woman). In the will of John Chastain Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807, "2 Negroes Jane and Selah" were willed to John's daughter, Jane.

Name: Unknown. Date of birth: described as a "wench" in 1804. Location: Bedford County, Virginia. Enslaver: John Chastain, Jr., later his wife Elizabeth. In the will of John Chastain Jr, written January 25, 1804, and proven September 28, 1807, a "Negro wench" was willed to John's wife, Elizabeth.

Possible last name of Hancock: (based on 1860 Slave Schedule and 1870 U.S. Census, see below for methods) All of the following people were enslaved by Ammon Goode Hancock.

Age: 50, Sex: male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 Census (Black or Mulatto men born around 1810, with the most likely matches listed first): Dandy Hancock, 60, Black, living in Brookville (or Brookneal), Campbell County, Virginia, which is the same location as the Ammon Good Hancock family. He works on a farm with his wife Sally, 50, and son Weaton, 12. Daniel Hancock, 60, Liberty Township, Bedford County, Virginia (this is the location of Ammon Hancock's father's plantation). Corbin F. Hancock, 59, East District, Loudon County, Virginia

Age: 48, Sex: male, Color: Black.  Possible matches from the 1870 Census (Black or Mulatto men born around 1812, with the most likely matches listed first): Jerry Hancock, 48, Southside, Appomattox County, Virginia. Harry Hancock, 48, Bacon, Charlotte County, Virginia. David Hancock, 47, First Revenue Division, Chesterfield County, Virginia

Age:35, Sex: male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 Census (Black or Mulatto men born around 1825, with the most likely matches listed first): Peter Hancock, 46, working on a farm in Eastern District Campbell County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock), with wife Hannah, 32, and eight children ages 16-2, including a daughter named Lucy (same as Ammon Hancock's sister and youngest child). It seems unlikely that an enslaved person would name their child after a member of the family that enslaved them, but there are a number of reasons that one could have chosen to do so, including kinship ties or hoping to forge an economically helpful relationship with a potential employer. John Hancock and Jeff Hancock, both 45, both living in Stauton Township, Bedford County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock's father's plantation), in separate households with their wives and children. George Hancock, 45, Gills Creek, Franklin County, Virginia. Jacob Hancock, 44, Union Hall, Franklin County, Virginia. Jacob Hancock, 45, Manchester, Chesterfield County, Virginia.

Age: 30, Sex: Male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 Census (Black or Mulatto men born around 1830, with the most likely matches listed first): Jacob (or possibly Joe S.) Hancock, 40, works on a farm in Eastern Division, Campbell County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock), with his wife Amanda, 35. Samuel Hancock, 40, blacksmith, in Union Hall, Franklin County, Virginia. He is listed as "Mulatto", but a person's color description was not always the same from year to year.

Age: 28, Sex: Male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 Census (Black or Mulatto men born around 1832, with the most likely matches listed first): Spanell Hancock, 38, working on a farm in Franklin County, Virginia. Sam Hancock, 37, working on a farm in Franklin County, Virginia.

Age: 25, Sex: male, Color: Black. Jordan Hancock, 35, Union Hall, Franklin County, Virginia. Frank Hancock, 35, Elon, Amherst County, Virginia. (Since color designations weren't always consistent, all of the men listed here could also have been possible matches for the men listed in the entry below.)

Age: 25, Sex: male, Color: Mulatto. Possible matches from the 1870 Census: Morgan Hancock, 35, color: Mulatto, Birch Creek, Halifax County, Virginia. (Since color designations weren't always consistent, Morgan could also have been a possible match for the men listed in the entry above).

Age: 23, Sex: male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 Census: Madison Hancock, 34, Staunton, Bedford County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock's father's plantation). Anderson Hancock, 34, Madison, Charlotte County, Virginia.

Age 23, Sex: male, Color: Mulatto. Possible matches from the 1870 Census: Daniel Hancock, 34, color: Mulatto, living in Brookville, Campbell County Virginia (same county as Ammon Goode Hancock). (Since color designations weren't always consistent, Daniel could also have been a possible match for the men listed in the entry above).

Age 22, Sex: Male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 Census: Alex Hancock, 32, Madison, Charlotte County, Virginia. 

Age 22, Sex: Male, Color: Mulatto. Possible matches from the 1870 Census: I couldn't find any exact matches, but color designations weren't always consistent, so Alex, above, could have been a possible match for this enslaved person. Also, the age/date of birth isn't always 100% correct, so someone listed as age 23 or 21 may actually be this person. Alternatively, of course, he could have died, moved away, or fallen between the census cracks.

Age: 21, Sex: Male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 Census: Sam Hancock, 31, Gills Creek, Franklin County, Virginia. James Henrick (may say Hancock), 31, Southside, Appomatox County, Virginia. Anthony Hancock, 30, Southside, Appomattox County, Virginia. John Hancock, 30, Madison, Charlotte County, Virginia. Silas Hancock, 30, Southside, Appomattox County, Virginia. William Hancock, 30, Madison, Charlotte County, Virginia. W. Hancock, 30, Jefferson, Alexandria County, Virginia. (W. Hancock's color is listed as "Mulatto", but color designations weren't always consistent, so he could have been the person listed in the 1860 slave schedule).

Age: 19, Sex: Female, Color: Mulatto. Possible matches from the 1870 Census (please note women are particularly hard to track in this way, since their names changed with marriage): Susan Hancock, 29, Brookville, Campbell, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock and his family). Harriet Hancock, 30, Union Hall, Franklin County, Virginia. Maria Hancock, 30, Madison, Charlotte County, Virginia. Mary Hancock, 30, Jefferson, Alexandria, Virginia. 

Age: 18, Sex: Male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 census, with most likely first: Richard Hancock, 28, Eastern Division, Campbell County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock and family). Clem Hancock, 28, Madison, Charlotte County, Virginia. Henry Hancock, 28, Gills Creek, Franklin County, Virginia. 

Age: 17, Sex: Male, Color: Mulatto. Possible matches from the 1870 census, with most likely first (note all the men on this list were listed as "Black" on the 1870 census): Henry Hancock, 27, Union Hall, Franklin County, Virginia. Nathan Hancock, 27, Southside, Appomattox County, Virginia. Thomas Hancock, 26, Union Hall, Franklin County, Virginia.

Age: 17, Sex: Female, Color: Mulatto. Possible matches from the 1870 Census (please note women are particularly hard to track in this way, since their names changed with marriage): Cela Hancock, 27, Madison, Charlotte County, Virginia. Catharine Hancock, 26, Madison, Charlotte, Virginia.

Four children, all Age: 14, Sex: Male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 census: Henry Hancock, 23, Staunton, Bedford County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock's father's plantation). Robert Hancock, 25, Stonewall, Appomattox County, Virginia. Robert Hancock, 25, Bonbrook, Franklin County, Virginia. Samuel Hancock, 25, Amherst, Amherst County, Virginia. William Hancock, 25, First Revenue Division, Chesterfield County, Virginia. Wilson Hancock, 25, Southside, Appomattox County, Virginia. Doctor Hancock, 23, Southside, Appomatox County, Virginia. 

Five children, all Age: 12, Sex: Male, 3 were listed as Color: Mulatto; 2 were listed as Color: Black. All of the possible matches from the 1870 census are Black, but color was not consistently recorded. Moses Hancock, 22, Eastern Division, Campbell County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock and his family). Beverly Hancock, 22, First Revenue Division, Chesterfield County, Virginia. Isaac B. Hancock, 22, Southside, Appomattox County, Virginia. Jonathan Hancock, 22, Norfolk Ward 3, Norfolk County, Virginia.

Age: 11, Sex: Male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 census (most likely matches listed first): Robert Hancock, 21, Chamblissburg, Bedford County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock's father's plantation). Henry Hancock, 21, Union Hall, Franklin County, Virginia. Peter Hancock, 21, Gills Creek, Franklin County, Virginia.

Seven children, all Age: 10, Sex: Male, 2 listed as Color: Mulatto, 5 listed as Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 census (most likely matches listed first): Joseph Hancock, 20, Staunton, Bedford County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock's father's plantation). Levi Hancock, 20, Lynchburg, Lynch Ward, Campbell County, Virginia (same town as Ammon Hancock and his family). Alexander Hancock, 19, Staunton, Bedford County, Virginia (same county as Ammon Hancock's father's plantation). Filbert Hancock, 20, Madison, Charlotte County, Virginia. Anthony Hancock, 20, Elon, Amherst County, Virginia. Lewis Hancock, 19, Union Hall, Franklin County, Virginia.

Age: 8, Sex: Male, Color: Black. Possible matches from the 1870 census (most likely matches listed first): Lewis Hancock, 18, Union Hall, Franklin County, Virginia. James Hancock, 17, Gills Creek, Franklin County, Virginia. Madison Hancock, 17, Stonewall, Appomattox County, Virginia.

A note on Hancock methods: The names of enslaved people are often only recorded in wills or other property documents left by white slave-owners. Wills were the primary sources for the names of people enslaved by most of the families from which I've descended. Unfortunately, the Hancock line, in addition to being the part of my family most thoroughly complicit in the system of slavery, did not leave any wills from prior to the Civil War. Therefore, the only information we have about the names of the people enslaved by Ammon Goode Hancock come from the 1860 U.S. Slave Schedule. Ammon Goode Hancock bought a plantation and began a tobacco business around 1850. In the 1860 Slave Schedule, he is listed as enslaving 34 people. Based on their ages and sexes (almost all young men and boys), my guess is that they were purchased for Ammon's business, rather than slaves owned by his family over multiple generations. 

Unfortunately, Slave Schedules only list the age, sex, and color of individuals. In an attempt to put some names to these bare records, I compared the information from the 1860 Slave Schedule for Ammon Hancock with the U.S. Census of 1870 for the state of Virginia. 1870 was the first time that all people, regardless of the color of their skin, were counted as full citizens of the United States, and their fundamental humanity affirmed by listing their names, occupations, and relationships to each other in the census. I assumed that formerly enslaved people had taken the last name of Hancock, and that they were likely still in Virginia, merely because the alternatives would make them impossible to identify.

It would be great if the 1870 U.S. census produced many obvious correspondences between Black men and women listed in the 1860 Slave Schedule under the Hancock name. The reality is more complicated. To begin with, the 1860 Slave Schedule for the state of Virginia listed over 2,000 people enslaved by someone with the last name Hancock. Most had no connection to Ammon Hancock. Further more, many slaves, of course, chose any name other than their former enslaver's as their last name. Many took the name of the owner of the plantation where they were born, rather than where they were enslaved at the time of the Emancipation Proclamation. So, if Ammon Hancock had indeed purchased a number of people in the 1850s, it's possible that they took different last names. Finally, a number of the people listed in the 1860 Slave Schedule may have died, joined the Union Army during the Civil War and stayed up North, or, after the war, taken advantage of their freedom to move away. As a result, this list of individuals is really just a list of possibilities.

Guilt

When I began my obsession with genealogy, I was appalled at the number of slave owners I found in my family. I wanted to prepare a list of all the enslaved people I encountered in my studies, as a memorial to them, and in the recognition of the complicity my ancestors had in the "peculiar institution". As I worked, I was reminded of the first time I taught a class about the history of race and racism in this country. One of my white students raised his hand and asked, in all sincerity, "How am I supposed to feel about this? Guilty?"

I told him, "No, you shouldn't feel guilty. You should feel angry. You should feel angry that this system was perpetrated in your name, whether you wanted it to be or not. You should feel angry that our families, communities, and nation are denied their full potential because some of our neighbors are prevented from reaching their full potential." (OK, my answer wasn't quite that eloquent in the moment, but that was the gist.)

We all have some ancestors whose actions would be unacceptable today (and in many cases were unacceptable at the time.) Given how widespread theft, domestic violence, infidelity, and abuse are in human societies, it's too much to hope that any one of us has avoided all taint of criminality among our thousands of historic ancestors. But while we may try to distance ourselves from a grandfather's robbery charge or an aunt's affair, we no longer visit such sins of the father on his children.

My student's question reflected the common fear - no matter how poorly we can articulate it - that the present bears witness to some past sins more clearly than others, and that some trespasses implicate whole communities. For those of us whose ancestors carved out a nation based on slavery and the extermination of Native populations, the original sins of our birth are obvious. Facing this legacy inevitably raises strong emotions. The whole history of our nation shows that feelings of white guilt are widespread, even if they are hidden behind bluster and aggression. Guilt festers, and when it has festered for long enough, it tends to explode into violence against the very victims whose presence reminds us of the original crime.

With the benefit of a decade more experience and wisdom, I would answer that student's question differently. Now, I would say that feelings of guilt, anger, sadness, denial, and defensiveness are common when learning about systemic oppression perpetuated by people who looked like you, were related to you, or who benefited you. We should work through those feelings, discuss and examine them. But that emotional work needs to happen in the correct place and time. As a white person discussing the history of Black or Native oppression, remember that, no matter how you feel, you were not the victim of these horrible acts. Keep your focus on the victims, and don't let magical white peoples feelings hijack the learning process. Yes, I recognize the irony in that statement in the middle of a long post on white guilt. But we all need space to work through our feelings. That space is here - in a discussion about white feelings - not in a space dedicated to the understanding of racism, slavery, Jim Crow, or any other trauma to which you  or your community/ancestors were not subjugated.

While some of us react with empathy and sadness when learning about past injustice, denial and defensiveness are more common ways to distance ourselves from the emotional impact. You may think, "but that was all a long time ago, it's not relevant now!" It is important for all of us to recognize how we benefit today from the horrors of the past. For example, I had enough family money that I could try for an academic career (very chancy employment prospects!) because I knew I could always fall back on living with my parents. I'm at least the fourth generation college graduate in my family. The first college graduate I know of was my great-great grandfather, Earnest Hancock, whose education at the Virginia Military Institute was paid for by the family tobacco business, built, of course, on the backs of slaves. No, I have never personally held anyone in bondage, but generations of secure middle class life for my family has its ultimate base on slave labor. Many African-Americans are only the second (or even first) generation in their family to be literate. Imagine the differences this creates in opportunities for better jobs and education. This is the direct result of slavery and the Jim Crow system that replaced it.

It can be very tempting to answer that argument with, "but my family never owned slaves". In some cases, this isn't true. Complicity in the institution of slavery isn't something to brag about, and such stories may not be handed down from generation to generation. Even when it is true, even if, for example, your ancestors arrived in the United State well after slavery was abolished, you and your white ancestors benefited from economic and political systems that prevented Black men and women from fairly competing for resources in this country, thereby guaranteeing better education, housing, public safety, nutrition, and health care to white families. For example, the GI Bill and the Social Security laws were written explicitly to exclude most Black families from benefiting. Centuries of segregation led to radically different school quality, benefiting white families. This is an issue I'm happy to debate with any of my students (or readers of this post), but I ask that, minimally, you first read Living Apart and Segregation Now, by Nikole Hannah-Jones, and I highly recommend anything by Ta-Nehisi Coates. There is actual data that can be brought to this debate, I won't argue on opinion.

Another common way we deflect our feelings of guilt about the past is to excuse our ancestors by saying "he was a man of his times. He didn't know any better." This argument is false. Lots of people knew that, for example, slavery was wrong (not least the enslaved people themselves). The fact that people who financially benefited from the system refused to admit it was immoral does not mean they were unaware it was immoral. Although some of my ancestors were slave owners, others were actively opposed to slavery well before its abolishment, even moving North to avoid the institution. My 4xgreat-uncle, James Stewart Dean, grew up near the active Underground Railroad hub of Chillicothe, Ohio. Although most Chillicothe Underground Railroad conductors were free Blacks, the Presbyterians (like the Deans), also played an active role. James Dean sheltered people fleeing slavery on his farm, and then moved to Kansas to fight for its entrance into the union as a free state. He survived Quantrill's Raid. Five of my more distant Brattain ancestors were part of a pro-Union, anti-Slavery group in Arkansas during the Civil War. They were given the choice to enlist in the Confederate Army or be executed. They enlisted, but deserted and joined the Union forces when the opportunity arose. It diminishes the bravery and morality of these men if we excuse the behavior of slave owners as being merely typical of their time.

I enjoy genealogy because I enjoy hearing the stories of the people who came before me. Those stories are much easier to embrace when they show my family in a positive light. But I have an obligation not to hide the past just because I find it personally embarrassing. This is part of my ethical obligation as an archaeologist, as well as a code we should all follow. This nation is long overdue in addressing the issue of racism. One step toward that goal is admitting how much racism exists, and how important it has been in our nation's history. As difficult as it is to admit, part of who I am comes from people who inflicted tragedy on others. But admitting that is how we move forward, how we rededicate ourselves to fixing the systemic inequalities that exist today, the direct legacy of the violence perpetuated in the past.

Finding my great-grandmother-in-law

Ancestry.com.uk made their UK records free this weekend, so I'm taking advantage of the opportunity to do more research on my husband's family. His grandfather was born in London, and since UK records are, quite frankly, rubbish - at least for the slums of Victorian London - it's been hard to track down more information about them.

Here are the facts we know about my great-grandmother-in-law:

• Her name was Annie Dyer Beaver, and her full name may have been Jane Ann or Ann Jane. This is common knowledge among her descendants.
• She was born in England (as all her U.S. census documents attest)
• There is a marriage registration for Ann Jane Dyer and Thomas Alfred Beaver, second quarter of 1899, in St. Giles, London.[1]
• In the 1901 UK Census, she was head of household, living with three of her husband's siblings (Albert J, 23, printer (I think - it's hard to read); William H., 18, copper plate printer; and Victoria H., 14). Her age is given as 31 (for a birth year of 1870), and her birth place as Clerkenwell (a region of central London).[2]
• She arrived, with her children, in the United States on Oct. 16, 1913, to join her husband, who was already working in Ohio. We have the passenger manifest from the ship Haverford, which docked in Philadelphia. She gives her age as 39 (which would mean a birth year of 1874), her husband's address as South Euclid, Ohio, and her nearest relative in England as "Mrs. Puleston" of 47 Arlington Rd., London. (Deciphering that name was, um, difficult. See below).[3]

OK, those are the basic facts. Several ancestry.com users have her in their family trees, and most put her birth year as 1877 in Lancashire, and her parents as George Dyer and Margaret Smith. I believe this is incorrect, and the result of the poor British records. There is a "Jane Ann Dyer" who shows up in a record search as the daughter of George and Margaret in Lancashire, born 1877. But the facts of this Ann's life don't fit those of "our" Annie.

First, Annie's 1901 census record clearly gives her birthplace as London (granted, it could be wrong), and her birth year as 1870 (making her 4 years older than her husband). Although she self-reported a later birth date in the passenger manifest (making herself 39 instead of 43, because no woman ever lies about being over 40!), in the 1920 census documents she gives her age as 50 [4]. She didn't record her age in the 1930 census, but she gave her age at first marriage (in 1899) as 29. Both of these records correspond to a birth year of 1870, not 1877.[5]

So is there another Annie Dyer, one born in 1870 in Clerkwell? The short answer is "no". However, there's a record for an Ann Jane Dyer, born Oct-Nov-Dec, 1869, in Holborn.[6] Holborn is very close to Clerkenwell, less than an mile away in central London. 

The next logical place to look, of course, is the UK Census for 1871. There is more than one Dyer family in London in 1871, but here is my best bet for the correct family: John Robert Dyer, 35, an electroplating worker born in Holborn, living in St. James Clerkenwell, with his wife Mary Ann, 35, who was born in Birmingham. Living in their household are son George, 13, born in St. Pancras; daughter Mary Ann, 11, born in Holborn; son John, 6, born in Holborn; daughter Clara, 4, born in Holborn; and daughter Ann, 1, born in St. Pancras.[7]

Clerkenwell Green and St. James's Church
Nothing proves that England and the U.S. are two nations divided by
a common language quite like the realization that anyone could call
this a "green"

First, a note about the locations. St. James parish in Clerkenwell, which is where the family was living in 1871, is the area around St. James Church of England, which is located in central London, NE of King's Cross Road (A201) and Clerkenwell Rd. The census was taken in the summer, so if Ann was born in the last quarter of 1869, she would still be one at the time of the census. Although the 1871 census says she was born in St. Pancras, and the birth record says she was born in Holborn, it is easy to see how, as an adult, she would have given her birth place as Clerkenwell, since apparently the family was living there when she was very young, and, as we will see, she lost her parents soon after. It's hard to know the exact location of St. Pancras (listed as Annie's place of birth in the 1871 census) relative to Holborn (where her birth was registered), because St. Pancras is no longer a separate political entity. It is, in fact, put together with Holborn in the UK Parliament, as the borough of Holborn-St. Pancras. I can only guess that, even at the time, a birth that took place in the parish of St. Pancras was registered in the civil registry of Holborn. 

47 Arlington Rd, London
Google Map Street View

I have a number of reasons to believe that John Robert and Mary Ann Dyer were the parents of Annie Dyer Beaver. Remember that on the passenger manifest of her immigration ship, Annie gave the name of her closest relative in England. The name was Mrs. Puleston of 47 Arlington Rd., London. Actually, the name was almost illegible. I read it as Pulcolow. However, the address was much more useful. According to the 1914 London City Directory, the resident of 47 Arlington Rd, London, was William Edwin Puleston.[8] The 1911 UK Census shows William Puleston, age 49, French Polisher, lived at 47 Arlington Road, St. Pancras, NW, with his wife, Clara, aged 44. Remember, the second daughter of John Robert and Mary Ann Dyer, in the 1871 census record above, was named Clara. She was 4 in 1871, which means she should be 44 in 1911, just like Clara Puleston. The Mrs. Puleston listed as Annie's closest relative, then, was probably her sister. Further corroboration of this comes from the marriage record for William Edwin Puleston and Clara Dyer, in Oct-Nov-Dec of 1886, in Lambeth, London.[9]

Further evidence that our Annie Dyer was the daughter of John Robert and Mary Ann Dyer comes from the 1891 Census, in which Ann J. Dyer, born in Clerkenwell, is listed as "sister" in the household of Henry R. Louch, 34, and his wife Mary Ann Louch, 31. Mary Ann was the name of the oldest daughter of John Robert and Mary Ann Dyer, and since she was 11 in 1871, she would have been 31 in 1891. Confirmation that this woman is indeed Ann J Dyer's sister (and that the census taker's handwriting was horrific) can be found in the marriage record for Mary Ann Dyer and Henry Robert Leach, in the winter of 1882.[10]

The most obvious next step would be to trace the Dyer family from the 1871 census to the 1881 census, but here we run into a common problem among the poverty-stricken families of London's Victorian slums: the family had split apart and the children were scattered. Where the parents were remains mystery. My best guess is that one or more of them died, and the children were divided out among relatives. There was a John Dyer, 44, electroplator, living at 43 Gloucester St., Holborn, in 1881. He was living with a wife named Fanny, their one-year old child Jessie, and two step-daughters aged 8 and 11.[11] This may be John Robert, Annie's father, and his new family. But where were the children of the previous marriage?

The oldest son, George, was out on his own, following his father's professional footsteps. George E. Dyer, 23, Electroplate Maker, was living in 1881 in St. Pancras, with his wife, Mary Anne Dyer, age 20.[12] The eldest daughter of John Robert was named Mary Anne Dyer, and she would have been around 20 in 1881. Since I can find no other Mary Anne Dyers in the 1881 census, I wonder if this census document erred in listing Mary Anne as George's wife, and if in fact she was his sister.

The second son, John, would have been 16 in 1881. There are two possible census records for him. One is a John Dyer, age 16, who's a patient in the Royal Naval Hospital, and gives his birth location as St. Pancras. Alternatively, there is a John A. Dyer, age 17, living and born in Shoreditch, with his younger sister, Emily, age 8.[13] I'm not sure which, if any, of these are our John Dyer. 

The second daughter, Clara, would have been 14 in 1881. The only plausible census entry is for a Clara Dyer, 14, born in Mile End, who lived in West Ham, 20 Leyton Rd., Albert Cot, with her grandparents Samuel Hersom, 53, and Elizabeth Hersom, 63, as well as another of the couple's granddaughters, Annie Hersom, aged 1. Samuel was born in Horsleydonn, Surrey, and Elizabeth was born in Clifton, Somerset. None of these birth places fit with Annie's mother, Mary Ann Dyer, who gave Birmingham as her birth place. Furthermore, I can't find any record of a Mary Ann Hersom married to a John Robert Dyer. Attempts to follow Samuel and Elizabeth Hersom into the past show no daughters of the correct age or name. This remains a possible lead to follow later. It would be exciting if we had some insight into Annie's mother's family! Unfortunately, it's entirely plausible that one or more of the Dyer children were just left out of the 1881 census, having dropped through the cracks, so to speak.

What about Annie herself? Where was she in 1881? I am fairly confident I have found her. There is an Annie Dyer, age 12, listed as "niece" to the head of the household, Sophia Ward, widow, age 38, living in 1 Huntley Place, Shoreditch. Sophia Ward gives her birthplace as Shoreditch, as well. A nephew, Thomas Dyer, aged 10, presumably a brother of Annie's, is also living in the household.[14] 

Huntley Street, London (Google street view)
This is the closest to the likely address I could find.
Number 1 is on the left in this picture.

I determined the name of Sophia Ward's deceased husband by looking at the 1871 census, which lists her as wife in the household of William Ward, 31, born St. Andrew's Middlesex, England, and living in Shoreditch.[15] There is a Sophia Dyer who married a William Thomas Ward in Shoreditch in 1862, which is about right for the birth year of their first child.[16] I'm guessing, therefore, that Sophia was Annie's paternal aunt.

But how do I know that the Sophia Dyer who married William Ward was the sister of John Robert Dyer? Unfortunately, I can't find that smoking gun document to prove the connection. However, I have a strong circumstantial case based on the names that John Robert and Sophia gave to their children. First, Sophia Ward's children, as listed in the 1881 census, are Edwin, Charles, Albert, and Eliza.[14] John Robert and Mary Ann Dyer's first son was named George, but he was christened George Edwin Dyer, born March 8, 1858, and christened May 2, 1858 in St. Anne, Soho, Westminster.[17] Their eldest daughter was named for her mother, Mary Ann, but their second daughter, Clara, was christened Clara Sophia Dyer.[18] And, of course, the two families both named a daughter Annie. 

I searched for John Robert and Sophia Dyer as young siblings in the 1851 census, but I was not successful. I did find a census record for a family living in St. Giles-in-the-fields, Middlesex (which, believe it or not, is in the middle of London). The family consists of Edwin (or Edward) Dyer, a bookmaker, his wife Sophia, and their children Anne, John, and Edwin. Edwin/Edward was born in Devonshire, and his wife was born in Suffolk. All of their children had been born in Middlesex. Each of the family names were also used by John Robert Dyer and Sophia Dyer Ward for their children. But young Sophia, who would have been around seven at the time of the census, is not listed as a member of the family. Could she have been living with another relative? Or do I have the wrong census record?[19]

To summarize, at this point I'd say with 99% certainty that Annie Dyer Beaver was the daughter of John Robert and Mary Anne Dyer. I have about 85% certainty that John Robert Dyer and Sophia Dyer Ward were the children of Edwin and Sophia Dyer. Someday, I hope, I'll be able to find some trace of Annie's mother's family.


Sources:
1. "England and Wales Marriage Registration Index, 1837-2005," database, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:269F-SYR : accessed 17 September 2015), Ann Jane Dyer, 1899; from “England & Wales Marriages, 1837-2005,” database, findmypast (http://www.findmypast.com : 2012); citing Marriage, St. Giles, London, England, General Register Office, Southport, England.

2. "England and Wales Census, 1901," database, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:X9D4-WGW : accessed 19 September 2015), Ann J Beaver, Islington, London, Middlesex, England; from "1901 England, Scotland and Wales census," database and images, findmypast (http://www.findmypast.com : n.d.); citing Islington South East subdistrict, PRO RG 13, The National Archives, Kew, Surrey.

3. "Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Passenger Lists, 1883-1945," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:2379-QBL : accessed 17 September 2015), Annie Beaver, 1913; citing Immigration, NARA microfilm publication T840 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.); FHL microfilm 1,402,621.

4. "United States Census, 1920," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:MDBX-VXH : accessed 17 September 2015), Ann Jane D Beaver in household of Thomas A Beaver, Euclid, Cuyahoga, Ohio, United States; citing sheet 4A, family 92, NARA microfilm publication T625 (Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.); FHL microfilm 1,821,374.

5. "United States Census, 1930," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:X4QF-KKW : accessed 17 September 2015), Ann Jane Beaver in household of Harley Brown, South Euclid, Cuyahoga, Ohio, United States; citing enumeration district (ED) 0710, sheet 5A, family 115, line 27, NARA microfilm publication T626 (Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 2002), roll 1788; FHL microfilm 2,341,522.

6. "England and Wales Birth Registration Index, 1837-2008," database, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:2X7S-M46 : accessed 20 September 2015), Ann Jane Dyer, 1869; from "England & Wales Births, 1837-2006," database, findmypast (http://www.findmypast.com : 2012); citing Birth Registration, Holborn, London, England, citing General Register Office, Southport, England.

7. 1871 UK Census, Ancestry.com Class: RG10; Piece: 387; Folio: 4; Page: 2; GSU roll: 824620

8. http://specialcollections.le.ac.uk/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p16445coll4/id/112417/rec/13

9. "England and Wales Marriage Registration Index, 1837-2005," database, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:2DD4-GDS : accessed 20 February 2016), William Edwin Puleston, 1886; from “England & Wales Marriages, 1837-2005,” database, findmypast (http://www.findmypast.com : 2012); citing Marriage, Lambeth, London, England, General Register Office, Southport, England.

10. "England and Wales Marriage Registration Index, 1837-2005," database, FamilySearch(https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:2DTH-LL9 : accessed 20 February 2016), Mary Ann Dyer, 1882; from “England & Wales Marriages, 1837-2005,” database, findmypast(http://www.findmypast.com : 2012); citing Marriage, St. Giles, London, England, General Register Office, Southport, England.

11. Class: RG11; Piece: 337; Folio: 68; Page: 32; GSU roll: 1341073. Ancestry.com and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 1881 England Census [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2004.

12. Class: RG11; Piece: 321; Folio: 132; Page: 32; GSU roll: 1341069. Ancestry.com and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 1881 England Census [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2004.

13. Class: RG11; Piece: 390; Folio: 15; Page: 23; GSU roll: 1341084. Ancestry.com and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 1881 England Census [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2004.

14. England and Wales Census, 1881," database with images, FamilySearch(https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:QK6T-HFD5 : accessed 22 February 2016), Sophia Ward, Shoreditch, London,Middlesex, England; from "1881 England, Scotland and Wales census," database and images, findmypast (http://www.findmypast.com : n.d.); citing p. 29, Piece/Folio 399/109, The National Archives, Kew, Surrey; FHL microfilm 101,774,255.

 15. "England and Wales Census, 1871", database with images, FamilySearch(https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:VRJX-296 : accessed 20 February 2016), Sophia Ward in entry for William Ward, 1871.

16. "England and Wales Marriage Registration Index, 1837-2005," database, FamilySearch(https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:2DVS-JTQ : accessed 20 February 2016), William Thomas Ward, 1862; from “England & Wales Marriages, 1837-2005,” database, findmypast(http://www.findmypast.com : 2012); citing Marriage, Shoreditch, London, England, General Register Office, Southport, England.

17. "England Births and Christenings, 1538-1975," database, FamilySearch(https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:JWXR-HRS : accessed 22 February 2016), John Robert Dyer in entry for George Edwin Dyer, 02 May 1858; citing , reference ; FHL microfilm 918,608.

18. England & Wales, FreeBMD Birth Index, 1837-1915, FreeBMD, Ancestry.com Operations Inc

19. Class: HO107; Piece: 1508; Folio: 103; Page: 68; GSU roll: 87842 Ancestry.com. 1851 England Census [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2005.

James Dean. No, not the cool one.

In Deans in a Nutshell, I summarized the straight patronymic line of Deans from central Pennsylvania in the mid-1700s down to my great-grandfather. The post was a bit misleading, though, in the tone of certainty with which I discussed James Dean, the founder of our line in the Americas.

The truth is, while we have lots of documentary evidence tracing the Dean line from the present day back to Abraham Dean (1763-1806), our knowledge of his father is sketchy. I was inspired by the impressive genealogical work of Larry Dean (probably not a relation, but who knows!) to combine his knowledge of 18th century Pennsylvania Deans - laid out in this on-line essay - with the few bits of information I have gleaned from other sources, to try and clarify our relationship to the various Deans who were running around the Appalachians at the time.

I started my search with one assumption: while the name James is frustratingly common, the name Abraham is more unique. Therefore, any Abraham Dean on record in central Pennsylvania in the late 18th century was - in all likelihood - "our" Abraham Dean. I then worked back from known records of Abraham to try and identify his father and other relatives.

First, some facts about Abraham Dean:

Abraham Dean's Tombstone
In the Dean Cemetery in South Salem, Ross County, Ohio

Abraham Dean was born around 1763; his tombstone says he was 43 in 1806. We know this tombstone belongs to "our" Abraham Dean because he was buried next to Hannah Baird Dean (his daughter-in-law) and James Harvey Dean (his grandson).

Abraham died in South Salem, Ross County, Ohio. However, there are multiple secondary sources that tell us Abraham originally came from Pennsylvania. For example, a book on the history of Polk County, Iowa, published in 1890, wrote of Abraham's son, "John Stuart Dean, deceased, was born in Lancaster County, Pa, August 9, 1797, and closed a busy and useful life, December 21, 1872." (1)

Today Lancaster County, PA, is southeast of Harrisburg. However, in 1797, it was a much larger area. Primary documents suggest Abraham settled near modern-day Alexandria, PA, which is in Huntingdon County. Huntingdon County was created from Bedford County in 1787. Bedford County was created from Cumberland County in 1771. And Cumberland County was created out of Lancaster County in 1750. Either John was born farther east than his father later settled, or the shifting county lines hadn't been remembered twenty years and two states after his death.

Primary documentation confirms the family lived in Pennsylvania before moving to Ohio around 1800. These documents include:

1. Abraham's children's birthplaces, listed in their census records. In 1850, for example, James Stewart Dean, John's older brother, stated he was born in Pennsylvania(2).
2. The name Abraham Dean is found only twice in the 1790 census. One of those Abraham Deans is in Huntingdon County, Pennsylvania. The other is in Maine. (3) 
3. An Abraham Dean was issued a land warrant on September 2, 1784, for an area in Franklin Township, north of the Little Juniata River (near modern-day Alexandria, PA). This purchase would have been made when he was 21, just as he was coming of age (4)
4. In 1788, Huntingdon County's tax records show Abraham Dean paid  £10 on 2 horses and 1 head of cattle (5). 
5. In June of 1789, Abraham Dean served as a juror at a Court of General Quarter Sessions of the Peace held at Huntingdon(6). 
6.  In 1798, the United States Direct Tax in Huntingdon County listed Abraham Dean as the owner of 395 acres at the headwaters of Shavers and Standing Stone Creeks (about 10-15 miles NE of Alexandria, PA). Two other Deans are listed as living at those same headwaters, and there are no other families there. Those Deans are James and Robert.

Secondary sources back up the primary sources. In a history of central Pennsylvania, I found this quote: "Continuing down the creek [Spruce Creek, which is north of Alexandria] we find next Abraham Dean's tract at the Great Falls, called Mexico, the warrant for which was issued Sept. 2, 1784. From this tract to near the mouth of the creek, which was then called the East Branch of the Little Juniata, the best land had been taken up by speculators in 1766."(8)

So Abraham Dean was in central Pennsylvania, near modern-day Alexandria, in the late 1700s. But who was his father? Who were his other family members? There were a number of Deans living in that area, were they all kin?

Abraham's name is directly linked in the primary sources to only two individuals: James Dean and William Dean.


The Connection Between Abraham and James Dean

Abraham and James Dean were listed next to each other in the 1790 census (3), suggesting they were neighbors. Unfortunately, that first census only listed the name of the head of household and ages/sexes of other household members. So, all we know about James Dean is that his household consisted of 3 boys younger than 16, 1 man older than 16 (himself) and 4 women/girls. Abraham's household, at the same time, consisted of one boy younger than 16, two men older than 16, and two women/girls. Abraham's surviving children were all born after 1790 - he may not have been married yet in 1790 - so it is not clear who the other members of his household were.

James Dean appears on the tax records of what is now Huntingdon County much earlier than Abraham Dean. Abraham bought his land in 1784, but James is first listed as paying taxes in Barree Township in 1774, as well as in 1775, 1776, and 1779 (5). Barree Township in Huntingdon County is about 10 miles NE of Alexandria, PA. James, then, is older than Abraham. We can assume there is some family relationship, since they owned land close together, but is James Abraham's father? An older brother? We cannot tell for certain on the basis of the primary sources alone, but secondary sources and family naming patterns suggest that James was Abraham's father.

First, a note about naming conventions: Scotch-Irish families frequently followed a standard naming tradition, in which the first-born son was named for his paternal grandfather, the second-born for his maternal grandfather, and the third for his father. The next sons, if there were any, were often named for a paternal uncle, then a maternal uncle, etc., etc. Daughters followed a similar convention: the first-born daughter was named for her maternal grandmother, the next for her paternal grandmother, and the third for her mother. Maternal and paternal aunts' names could follow (9).

Not everyone followed these rules to the letter, but Abraham's first-born son was named James, and therefore that was likely Abraham's father's name, as well.

We also have significant evidence that James Dean was the father of Margery Dean Canan. Margery Dean Canan married Col. John Canan, who later became a prominent Pennsylvanian businessman and politician. Because Canan was well-known, his life was somewhat better documented than other citizens of that time and place. Therefore, we know that he was married in 1775, meaning Margery had to have been born at or before 1760, at the latest.  Since Abraham was born in 1763, this makes Margery the correct age to be his sister.

The James Dean who was Margery Dean Canan's father was clearly the same James Dean who lived in Huntingdon County in the last quarter of the 1700s. The primary evidence connecting John Canan and James Dean is as follows:

1. As I mentioned in a previous blog post, the 1784 journal of James Harris, surveyor, mentions drinking cider "with Mr. Canan at Mr. Mitchell's and Mr. Dean's his father-in-law." In the same journal entry, he mentions his assistant taking a horse to Warrior's Mark that evening. Warrior's Mark is less than ten miles NE of Alexandria, PA. A William Mitchell, possibly the Mr. Mitchell of the journal entry, is listed in the 1790 census on the page before James and Abraham Dean (3).

2. Larry Dean records a Canan family bible that listed a number of deaths, including those of John and Margery Canan. Only one Dean was mentioned in that bible: James Dean, who died in November of 1795. 

Secondary sources and naming conventions support the contention that James Dean was the father of Margery Dean Canan. A biography of their grandson, S. Dean Canan, published in 1907 stated that  "He [John Canan] married, in 1775, Margery Dean, born 1760, died 1815, daughter of James and Catherine Dean, both natives of Ireland, and married after their arrival in America." (10). John and Margery named their second son James (as would be expected for a second son who was named after his maternal grandfather), and their first daughter Catherine (again, as expected, if that was the name of Margery's mother.)

If James Dean is Margery Dean Canan's father, then the ages of James, Margery, and Abraham suggest that James was the father of Margery and Abraham. There is some support for this in the names Abraham gave his children. His two oldest children are James and Catherine, and his third daughter was named Margery.

I mentioned before that Abraham's name is linked in primary documents with a man named William Dean. There were a number of Dean men documented in Central Pennsylvania in the late 1700s, but there's so much material to cover, those relationships will have to wait for another post.

References:

(1) "Portrait and Biographical Album of Polk County, Iowa", 1890, p. 428, (https://archive.org/stream/portraitbiograph08chic#page/428/mode/2up)] 

(2). United States Census, 1850," index and images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:MX7S-R6B : accessed 1 June 2015), James Dean, Buckskin, Ross, Ohio, United States; citing family 2812, NARA microfilm publication M432 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).

(3) "United States Census, 1790," database with images, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:XHKJ-8MR : accessed 17 July 2015), James Dean, Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, United States; citing p. , NARA microfilm publication , (Washington D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.), roll ; FHL microfilm .

(4) History of the Early Settlement of the Juniata Valley by U. J. Jones, published by Floyd G. Hoenstine, Holidaysburg, Pennsylvania

(5) The Pennsylvania Archives Third Series, Vol. 22

(6) Source: Extracts from Court Quarter Sessions, 1789-1795, Huntingdon County, PA,http://files.usgwarchives.net/pa/huntingdon/othcourt/1789-1795-court.txt

(8) "History of Huntingdon and Blair Counties, Pennsylvania", by J. Simpson Africa, p. 329, 

(9) http://www.johnbrobb.com/Content/TheScottishOnomasticPattern.pdf

(10) "History of Cambria County Pennsylvania, volume 3", by Henry Wilson Storey, p.64

(11) Allegheny Co., PA will book #1, page 10, FHL #0858898

LeFebvres in Minneapolis

I went to a doctor's appointment in the Twin Cities today, and I took the opportunity to drop in at St. Mary's cemetery in South Minneapolis, to find the graves of my great-great-grandparents, Leon LeFebvre dit Boulanger (1848-1918) and Obeline (sometimes Ombeline) Blouin (1848-1926)

Leon and Obeline were born in adjacent very small farming towns, about 15 miles southeast of Quebec City. They were married in 1870 in Sherbrooke, a town east of Montreal, near the Maine border. I don't know why they were there. After their marriage, they moved to Lewiston, Maine, a major mill town. The French-Canadian population was booming at the time, and the first French Catholic church, St. Peter's, was built there in 1872. Leon and Obeline worshiped there, and it was there that their children were baptized.

In 1882, they moved to Minneapolis. Leon was a carpenter, and in the 1900 census his occupation is listed as "millwright". Presumably he moved to Minneapolis for more work or better pay. Although the family mostly used their "Boulanger" name while in Maine, in Minneapolis they used "LeFebvre", which is the name that has continued down through most of their children's children.

In the 1900 census, Obeline reported being the mother of eight children, only four of whom were still living. One of these was my great-grandmother, Dora LeFebvre Cunningham.

With no further ado, some pictures of their graves:

This is the shared tombstone for Leon and Obeline. As far as I can tell, none of their children are buried nearby, but I haven't checked all of the names yet.

A close-up so you can see the inscription. It says "Leon Lefebvre 1848-1918 Obeline Lefebvre 1848-1928"

An overview of the cemetery where they are buried. That's their tombstone just left of center. It really is a lovely area, although the dirty, melting snow at the tail end of a January thaw doesn't do it justice.

If you go to St. Mary's you may find yourself wondering, as I did, "where, in this giant cemetery, are the graves I'm looking for?" I took this screenshot of the map on my phone while I was standing at the grave. the blue dot marks the spot.